Epistemology

Assalamu'alaikum wa rahmatullah

This is actually a framework for philosophy. I am not simply posting this for a reading but I am trying to open the eyes of brethren that we need to change the mind-set first before we preach to others. There is also Islamic epistemology but this contemporary neologism is coined in the West so I present it within Western and International context first. Because people always relate us to those backward Mullas from South Asia or Central Asia or those from Middle East so I would like everyone to take note that I was a Shari'a stream student. In contrast to my previous bad experience being looked down and low-estimated by those who were involved within "Science" stream in the 90s... I am grateful that I was a Shari'a stream student... I maybe lost the fame or enjoyment of this life but I actually did not lost anything... I have my self identity with me and I am not simply easy to be influenced although it seems like I am a delicate person...

Background

Knowledge

Introducing myself again... I was educated within three educational traditions... Islamic, Secular and Eastern (Buddhist) traditions. I was an undergraduate student in Translation and Interpretation from the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in which this course is not even a popular course. I used to laugh at our course with my colleague, Amir. It happened because we only realized that we just studied English-Malay as a major for translation and interpretation theories because we are native speakers of both languages and it was fated that we studied the course. I discussed with my another undergraduate colleague, Azren and he invited me to join him in European Studies for post-graduate where the course concerns with policy-making and governmental decision-making.I wasted my five years in the university for the sake of "knowledge" and social studies. I gained experience from the studies and it indeed makes me mature as compared to those who started their working life early. I started to work when I was 19 years old before I even joined the university. I quit the job because I think education matters the same like my ancestors had taught us. 

I am jobless right now not because I am incompetent or because I cannot converse in English. That is the most lame excuse that I have ever heard for those who interview local graduates. I write almost wholly in English here although educated in local university and local schools. I speak in English more than I speak in the national language. I am jobless because I am giving my hand to my mother to look after my paralyzed father. It is a "test" from the God the Highest as to see how patient we are... I am aware that this universe is temporal and would not last long so I am trying to do everything as to gain His pleasure may He elevate me and faithful brethren within His view receiving His boundless love and mercy : )   

Sealed with prayers for mercy, peace and love, amin!

Epistemology: Knowledge

Assalamu'alaikum wa rahmatullah

Knowledge

Sources of Knowledge

Generally, epistemology discusses about the kind of knowledge which is propositional knowledge or "knowledge that". The statement for this is, knowledge that, knowledge how and knowledge by acquaintance.

It is distinguished from "knowledge how" and "acquaintance-knowledge". As an e.g in maths, it is widely known that 2 + 2 = 4. However, there is also knowing how to add numbers and knowing a person or oneself, place or one's hometown, thing for e.g cars, or activity as in additional knowledge. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between "knowing that", "knowing how", and "acquaintance knowledge", with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these.

Bertrand Russel in his paper On Denoting and his book, Problems of Philosophy stressed the distinction between "knowledge by description" and "knowledge by acquaintance". Gilbert Ryle also talks the same about the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. 

Michael Polanyi in his Personal Knowledge argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that through example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle. He suggests that, theoretical knowledge of physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot be the substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that is important to understand how both are established and grounded. In this matter, Ryle argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress.

Contemporary epistemologists such as Duncan Pritchard argued that epistemology should evaluate people's properties i.e intellectual virtues and not just the properties of propositions or of propositional mental attitudes.

Belief

In common speech, a 'statement of belief" is typically an expression of faith and trust in a person, power or other entity; a paradigmatic example of such a statement of belief would be a declaration or affirmation of religious faith as in Nicene Creed for Christians.

While it addresses belief of this kind, epistemology is also concerned with belief in a very much broader sense of the word. In this broader sense "belief" simply means the acceptance as true of any cognitive content. To believe is to accept as true.

Truth

Whether someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for its belief. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For e.g, if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support him, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under his weight, it could be said that he believed that the bridge was safe but that his belief was mistaken.

It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. In contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself by crossing it, he knows it to be safe.

Epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions and others as a system of justified true sentences. Plato in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer. We might want to check the Criteria of Truth.

Justification

In many of Plato's dialogues such as the Meno and in particular the Theatetus by Socrates, considers a number of theories as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowledge is true belief that has been "given an account of"... Meaning explained or defined in some way.

According to the theory that knowledge is justified true belief. In order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reason for doing so. 

An implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true.

Example, an ill person with no medical training but with a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that he will recover from his illness quickly. Nonetheless, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have known that he would get well since his belief lacked justification.

The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper written by an American philosopher Edmund Gettier provoked major widespread discussion. We may also check theories of justification for other views on the idea.

Someone has come home and I could get ready to spend the gap time in the mosque. I have to wait for my paralyzed father here and I let my mother goes for the mosque first because she is older than me. We should not be selfish but consider others too including in our spiritual practices. Insha Allah we would continue our reading some more when we are free....

Sealed with prayers for mercy, peace and love, amin!

Epistemology: Background

Assalamu'alaikum wa rahmatullah

Well, this is going to be different. I was a postgraduate student. My lecturers said that once I am in the level and I could not speak like a lay man no more and they are right. I used to frown cause I did not understand them but now I understood. The same way I studied Buddhism and Brahmanism.  

I get to know about this term when I was a student in Dr. Benny Teh Cheng Guan who taught us International Relations and European Union External Policies. Epistemology came from Greek neologism epistēmē which means knowledge or understanding and logos which means the study of something. It is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and the scope of knowledge. It is referred as the theory of knowledge.

It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate within this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief and justification.

Mr. Teh taught us about the parable of a blind man and an elephant which is used to illustrate a range of truth and fallacies where it implies that one's subjective experience can be true, but such experience is inherently limited by its failure to account for other truths or a totality of truth. This parable is prominent within Buddhism or Jainism and other ancient Indian sub-traditions and my lecturer is a Buddhist. It is used to explain epistemology in our class.

Background

This neologism was first a translated concept of German, Wissenschaftslehre, used by Fichte and Bolzano for different projects before it was taken up again by Husserl. 

J. F. Ferrier coined the word on the model of "ontology", to designate that branch of philosophy; affirmed to be the latter's "true beginning", to discover the meaning of knowledge. 

This term passed into French as épistémologie, with a generally narrower meaning than the original, the import of which is covered by "theory of knowledge or theorie de la connaisance. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality (1908) with the remark that this term "is becoming current" as equivalent to "the philosophy of the sciences".

Epistemic Culture

It distinguishes between various settings of knowledge production and stresses their contextual aspects. It is coined by Karin Knorr-Cetina in her book Epistemic Cultures. She defines it as an amalgam of arrangements and mechanisms; bonded through affinity, necessity and historical coincidence which in a given field, make up "how we know what we know".

This term provides a conceptual framework used to demonstrate that different laboratories do not share the same "scientific" knowledge production model. But rather each is endowed with different epistemic culture prescribing what is adequate knowledge and how it is obtained. 

Since its introduction, this term has been picked up and used by various researches engaging in Science and Technology studies.

Practical Applications

Far from being purely academic, the study of this field is useful for many applications. It is particularly employed in issues of law where proof of guilt or innocence may be required, or when it must be determined whether a person knew a particular fact before taking a specific action for e.g whether an action was premeditated.

Another practical application is to the design of user interfaces as seen in examples such as skills, rules and knowledge. Taxonomy of human behavior has been used by designers to develops systems that are compatible with multiple "ways of knowing": abstract analytic reasoning, experience-based "gut-feelings" and "craft" sensory-motor skills. 

Applications of epistemology include in fields such as.....

• Education Theory
• Education Technology
• Artificial Intelligence
• Cognitive Science
• Cultural Anthropology
• History and Archeology
• Intelligence Information Gathering
• Knowledge Management
• Mathematics and Science
• Medicine in Diagnosis of Disease
• Neurology
• Philosophy of Education
• Behavorial Neuroscience
• Software Testing
• Product Testing
• Psychology
• Philosopy
• Linguistics
• Logics
• Literature
• Theology and Apologetics
• Sociology
• Testimony

I guess this is it for this part... I hope it helps for those who love to debate religions and stuffs or who love to win converts for whatever motive it is... Faith is not something which you could change like changing your clothes. It concerns with soul inclinations and this is the right of the God the Highest. 

Sealed with prayers for mercy, peace and love, amin!

Western Influence: Western Ambition which Long Lying Dormant

Assalaamu'alaikum wa rahmatullah

I had checked about this small book. There isn't much can be founded online. Maybe the title in English is different. It's ok I can still briefly do some translation for benefit of Muslim nations in the East and in Eastern Europe who speak English only for the God pleasure. Please don't look down on English as a medium. It's now an effective medium compared to French. God saves the Queen, hahaha! 

This is the first part of the book. It also mentions something about Protocols of Zion and I will comment about it after I put up the points written by the writer of the book regarding the matter as I don't like forgery. We talk with academic capacity and we are not American conspiracy theorists. Conspiracy theory has no basis in Social Science and academic tradition. 

After a year learning Social and International studies with all of the difficulties facing these chaotic Western thoughts, I found that every Muslim must have these lessons in their selves even if they do not talk much. We must be aware about what we talk. As a confused Muslim boy who had been involved in Buddhism teaching, I always have this in my mind where it comes from wisdom speeches of lord Buddha as one of teachers that I had ever have. If I talk without awareness, then my speech should be dumped into the thrash can.

Even if it is coming from Talmud which is influential in Judaism law... I would avoid from being dishonest because it is not the morality of noble prophet Muhammad s.a.w. He is an honest person who speaks the Word of the God. The God is not like human-being or our schoolmates who are crazy : ) Man without pure mind could not be a person who speaks His Word... It also shows we don't simply absorb everything that we read but we have our own filters... We don't stop at one side but we also read in many angles, we don't simply agree with everything that we read : )

1. Western Ambition which had Long Lying Dormant

Say the writer, there is an alarming efforts trying to reject that there are movements which lead global toward Westernization, cultural colonization, activities to assimilate Islamic thoughts into foreign thoughts, and holding up high the coming thoughts created by the West.

These efforts trying to expound arguments in two manners:

1. The opinion which questioning on where are those institutions known as the "Westernization Institution"? In fact, there is no such institution and it has no proper building with signboard displaying such words "the School or Foundation for Westernization." Thus, this question raised is a shallow question from those with shallow mind. For these groups of Westernized people assumption, they are good and useful agents of the West who served the movement without any payment and they are sincere toward the West.  

2. The discretion of Western stooges in hiding their loyalty to their movement makes it easier for them to deceive human-being as a whole.

It is so disappointing that, those who instil doubt on the Westernization movement are of the first group. Their heart and observation was closed. Westernization movement nowadays is not a secret anymore. It is not something which is undeniable. It is perhaps something that can be denied in the past 30th century where our Arab nation were in the dark age. Nowadays, many things are doubtful for example, the Protocol of Zion which had been widely spread all over the world around 1902. It was prohibited from entering the Middle East except in 1952 after the establishment of Israel as a modern country in the middle of Arab countries. 

The secret had been opened up by its own supporter. The book "Towards Islam" written by Hamilton Gibb together with other Orientalists is among important documents in relation to this matter. Gibb had obviously mentioned the purpose of researches being conducted is to decipher on how far Westernization impacted Muslim nations. It is portrayed in his statement as below:

"How far is the Westernization affecting and what are factors which preventing it from achieving its objective. It is important so that immediate actions could be taken for the objective to be achieved."

Readers of the book could obviously get to know the effects of Westernization movement. It is like an arrow which rushed into the eyes of those deflected where it will cover their heart with ignorance. Researchers who emerged after the period had also explained this fact more precisely and they also have their own documents and notes for references. These facts could also be founded in books written by Dr. Umar Farukh and Dr. al-Khalidi entitled "Missionary and Colonization." Those from the West also had written about the issue in the book. For example, Toynbee in his book "the World and the West."

In this regard, there are many evidences which could eliminate all of the doubt for those who intend to seek truth and for those who has no crooked intention in order to stop from serving the leaders of Westernization movement such as national movement or party based on racial as such being written by scholars of cultural colonization movement. 

Those who had ever read this book titled "The Attack on Islamic World" which had been published earlier than of Hamilton Gibb's and was translated by Dr. Muhibuddin al-Khatib in al-Moaiyid few years before 19th century had explained the determination of Westerners. The book had explained what had long been dormant in these people which is to dominate the world and it is something which should be achieved. Besides, they also had stated methods in executing their mission which had been divided into few institutions for example educational institutions such as school and university, missionaries, mass-media such as journalism or publishing. There are also other institutions such as literature and art, drama, theater, movies, and broadcasting.

There is no need for other evidences to confirm that there are Westernization movements which are supported by cadres and writers who are creeping around the world. Anyone who had joined any meeting organized by them through influential news agencies will found that those mentioned matters are obvious. Hence, there is no need for new evidences in order to enlight those who were lied. It is because they are determined with deep feelings to be blind followers to racial writers. These people are just like fragile rotten fruits produced by old hideous trees.

Those who analyzed and observed activities of missionary organizations, oriental studies foundation, and confusion raised by these two institutions could be more than confident that there are Westernization movement in all of the time.  

The definition of Westernization which could be understood from dozens of definitions forming new streaming of thought. It is based from the concept and values of Western thought. It is later becoming the benchmark for other thoughts and values around the world. Its aim is to make Western cultural traits and values being regarded highly exceeding those of other nations. Most of the time, they keep attacking cultures of Muslim nations. (Later when they found that Islam has nothing to do with cultural traits, they would bend it to other things. It shows that they hate the God because Islam is One of His Glorious Names).

Christian missionaries and Orientalists ever stated their ambition and objective is to create a new generation who would feel disgusted with Islamic values, those who low-esteem oriental values and thoughts, and working hard in preventing Islamic elements of morality and devotion to the God from entering educational institutions. The supporters of Westernization movements trying hard to pulverize Islamic figures such as prophet Muhammad s.a.w through finding the flaws of his characteristics, trying to demonize companions of Muhammad s.a.w, overshadowing Muslim philosophers of prophetic traditions with other extraordinary figures such as al-Hallaj, al-Sahruwardi, Bashar, al-Rawandi and many others.  

These efforts (their jihad for their own satisfaction) had been implemented through news papers and other so-called "standard quality" publishing with writers who were given fantastic images and titles to impress others.

Their writing technique would first explain the resolution which will be followed by few assumptions. Through assumptions, they created theories.

We don't treat these figures whether Muhammad s.a.w, celestial angels, prophets like Jesus a.s or Moses a.s and good people of the past like our schoolmates, buddies nor parents like in the West. We have 'respect' traditions in the East where manners and politeness is the most important thing as a mean to respect the soul within physical bodies of everyone. In Western world perhaps, people can call their dad or mum with their name. In Eastern part of the world, we respect them with titles. It is the same from Japan to Middle East and degree of politeness decreases as far as the sun sunken. Western thought indeed had entered educational institutions even in Malaysia. I still remember a leader had said that those religious studies students could be nothing in the future rather than being coconut graters in the village and later burdening the government. As the reslut, many religious studies students feel disgusted of themselves and for my case, I had fought teachers and seriously turned to Buddhism at that time shortly before I shifted to a technical school in Kajang. We are the products of those educational system which looks at material as a benchmark for development and not of soul based : )

Now... brothers and sisters that I love the most. This is how those "scholars" in the net work too. If we wanted people to live a noble life. We do not talk evil about others nor slandering because only people with evil mind will do that. This is not from Islamic teachings but from Buddhism teaching. I am actually more proficient in Buddhism and Brahmanism teaching compared to the religion of my ancestors which is Islam. Usually when I talk about these two traditions of philosophy from Indian sub-continent, I would treat them with respect, unlike those pastors nor hateful atheists because I was also once an atheist. Buddhists are atheist Hindus : ) 

End for this part, 9th of Zulhijjah 1432 wishing the Lord to bless creatures and universe with His boundless Mercy, Peace, and Love in this period near Resurrection, amin!    

European Studies : Europeanization

Assalaamu'alaikum wa rahmatullah

I've got to leave behind first the maqasid shariah but I wish to continue it once I am done with few assignments. Man!!! I hate assignments but that is the requirement for the course. I am going to talk about Europeanization. 

Introduction

Europeanization refers to few phenomena related to Europe and patterns of change :

I. The process in which a notionally non-European subject (be it a culture, a language, a city or a nation) adopts a number of European features.

II. Outside of the social sciences, it refers to the growth of a European continental identity or polity over and above national identities and polities of the continent.

III. It refers to the process through which EU political and economic dynamics become part of the organizational logic of national politics and policy-making.

Definitions

Europeanization has been generally referred as "being more European like." Specifically than this, it has been defined in many ways. 

Earliest conceptualization of this term was made by Ladrech (1994, 69). He defines Europeanization simply as an incremental process of reorienting the shape and direction of politics to the extent that European Community (EC) political and economic dynamics become part of organizational logic of national politics and policy making. 

It emphasizes what is known as the 'top-down approach' to Europeanization with change emanating from the impact of the Union onto the national policy. The state is viewed as reactive towards changes in the Union.

Another definition that needs to be taken into acoount is of Radaelli. He describes that Europeanization is : "A process involving a) construction b) diffusion c) institutionalization of formal and informal rules, procedures, policy paradigms, styles, 'ways of doing things' and shared beliefs and norms which are first defined and consolidated in the EU policy process. Then, they are incorporated in the logic of domestic (national or sub-national) discourse, political structures and public choices."

From a "bottom-up" approach, Europeanization occurs when states begin to affect the policy of the EU in a given area.

A more nuanced analysis posts that the institutional interaction of policy actors at the various levels of European governance leads to the redefinition of national, regional and other identities within a European context where the multiple levels of governance in Europe are not seen as necessarily in opposition to one another. 

An elected representative can, for example, see his loyalties and responsibilities as lying with Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain and Europe or with Amsterdam, Netherlands and Europe, for unitary states. Some scholars for example Samuel Huntington argue that citizens of European states increasingly identify themselves as such, rather than Portuguese, British, German, French, Italian and etc. 

An obvious area of change is in the institutions of Europe; the enlargement of the EU and the gradual acquisition of authority over the national member governments in numerous areas is creating a centralized European polity. The Economic and Monetary Union of the EU would be an example for this. In this case, the nations using the Euro have passed control of their monetary policy to the European Central Bank.

Another perspective of Europeanization is the "horizontal approach." This approach takes into account the transfer of politics, policies and policy making between member states of the EU. The transfer is based on a form of a "soft law" therefore is not enforceable, but is based on "best practice" and mutual recognition.

Whether Europeanization is a continuing process that will eventually lead to a full European government or whether centralization will be unable to overcome persisting national identities or increasing interests in localism is a matter of debate. 

Reference

Michelle Cini, European Union Politics 2nd Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007) p. 407.

This one is from wikipedia the source for lazy people since I have no time to dig in stuffs in European books. I have other books to read for research too like racism and multiculturalism. Maybe we could try to check them together once I am done with the presentation and exam stuffs, yah...

Sealed with prayers for mercy, peace, and love, amin!